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Preface
I. Current Situation of Energy Development
II. Strategy and Goals of Energy Development
III. All-round Promotion of Energy Conservation
IV. Improving the Energy Supply Capacity
V. Accelerating the Progress of Energy Technologies
VI. Coordinating Energy and Environment Development
VII. Deepening Energy System Reform
VIII. Strengthening International Cooperation in the Field of Energy
Conclusion
Preface
I. An Inevitable Choice in China's Social Development
II. A Basic Political System for China
III. Major Manifestations of Socialist Democracy
IV. Political Consultation in the Multi-party Cooperation System
V. Multi-party Cooperation System and Building of State Power
VI. Multi-party Cooperation System and the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
VII. Multi-party Cooperation System and Modernization
Conclusion
Appendix. A Brief Introduction to China's Democratic Parties and Personages Without Party Affiliation
Appendix: Basic Facts About the 155 Ethnic Autonomous Areas
Foreword
Chapter I The Security Situation
Chapter II National Defense Policy
Chapter III Revolution in Military Affairs with Chinese Characteristics
Chapter IV Defense Expenditure and Defense Assets
Chapter V The Military Service System
Chapter VI National Defense Mobilization and Reserve Force Building
Chapter VII Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense
Chapter VIII The Armed Forces and the People
Chapter IX International Security Cooperation
Chapter X Arms Control, Disarmament and Non-Proliferation
Appendix I Members of the CMC of the CPC
Appendix II Leaders of the Four Headquarters/Departments of the PLA
Appendix III Major Military Exchanges with Other Countries (2003-2004)
Appendix IV Participation in Security Consultations (2003-2004)
Appendix V Joint Exercises with Foreign Armed Forces (2003-2004)
Appendix VI Participation in UN Peacekeeping Operations
Appendix VII Major Military Regulations Promulgated Since 2003
Foreword
I. The Present Situation of Mineral Resources and Their Exploration and Exploitation
II. Targets and Principles for Mineral Resources Protection and Rational Utilization
III. Increasing the Domestic Capability of Mineral Resources Supply
IV. Widening the Opening of, and Cooperation in, Mineral Resources Exploration and Exploitation
V. Achieving the Coordinated Development of Mineral Resources Exploitation and Environmental Protection
VI. Improving the Management of Mineral Resources
Foreword
I. The Status Quo of the "Three Direct Links" Across the Straits and the Problems to Be Solved
II. Realization of the "Three Direct Links"
III. The Mainland's Basic Stand and Policies on the "Three Direct Links"
IV. Explanations on Some Questions Related to the "Three Direct Links"
Conclusion
Foreword
I. China's Basic Stand on Non-Proliferation
II. Actively Participating in International Non-Proliferation Efforts
III. Non-Proliferation Export Control System
IV. Concrete Measures for Non-Proliferation Export Control
V. Strictly Implementing the Laws and Regulations on Non-Proliferation Export Control
Conclusion
Foreword
Part One: Status and Role of the European Union
Part Two: China's EU Policy
Part Three: Strengthen China-EU Cooperation in All Fields
I. The Political Aspect
II. The Economic Aspect
III. The Education, Science-Technology, Culture, Health and other Aspects
IV. The Social, Judicial and Administrative Aspects
V. The Military Aspect
Foreword
I. The Security Situation
II. National Defense Policy
III. The Armed Forces
IV. National Defense Building
V. Armed Forces Building
VI. International Security Cooperation
VII. Arms Control and Disarmament
Appendix I Main Military Laws and Regulations Issued Since 2000
Appendix II Major Military Exchanges with Other Countries in 2001-2002
Appendix III Participation in Security Consultations in 2001-2002
Appendix IV Participation in UN Peace-keeping Operations
Appendix V Chinese Armed Forces’ Participation Since 2000 in Assisting Japan in Handling the Chemical Weapons Abandoned by Japan in China
Introduction
I. Aims and Principles
II. Present Situation
III. Future Development
IV. International Cooperation
Foreword
I. The Security Situation
II. National Defense Policy
III. National Defense Construction
IV. Armed Forces Building
V. International Security Cooperation
VI. Arms Control and Disarmament
Foreword
I. The International Security Situation
II. National Defense Policy
III. National Defense Construction
IV. International Security Cooperation
V. Arms Control and Disarmament
Foreword
I. Sustainable Marine Development Strategy
II. Rational Development and Utilization of Marine Resources
III. The Protection and Preservationof the Marine Environment
IV. The Development of Oceanographic Science, Technology and Education
V. The Implementation of ComprehensiveMarine Management
VI. International Cooperation in Maritime Affairs
I.Soaring Trade Between Chinaand the United States
II.Statistical Difference in Sino-USTrade Balance
III.Statistics Based on Rules of Origin CannotsAccurately Reflect the Situation of Sino-US Trade Balance
IV.US Export Control Against China-- a Major Obstacle for Bilateral Trade Balance
V.Sino-US Economic and Trade Co-operationShows Vast Vistas
Foreword
I. Promoting Peace and Developmentfor All Mankind
II. Military Personnel Reducedby One Million
III. Maintaining a Low Level ofDefence Spending
IV. Peaceful Uses for MilitaryIndustrial Technologies
V. Strict Control over the Transferof Sensitive Materials andMilitary Equipment
VI. Actively Promoting International Arms Control and Disarmament
Concluding Remarks
III. Judicial Guarantee for Human Rights
Foreword
Foreword
III. Judicial Guarantee for Human Rights
I. People's Rights to Subsistence and Development
Foreword
Foreword
Foreword
II. Civil and Political Rights
Foreword
Concluding Remarks
Foreword
.Concluding Remarks
Foreword
Foreword
Conclusion
Foreword
Preface
Foreword
Foreword
Preface
IV. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
II. Civil and Political Rights
Foreword
Foreword
Conclusion
Foreword
Foreword
Foreword
VI. Equal Rights and Special Protection for Ethnic Minorities
III. Judicial Guarantee for Human Rights
Foreword
Preface
Foreword
Conclusion
Foreword
V. Equal Rights and Special Protection for Ethnic Minorities
Foreword
Conclusion
Preface
Foreword
Conclusion
Foreword
Foreword
Conclusion
Foreword
Foreword
Conclusion
Foreword
Conclusion
Preface
Conclusion
Conclusion
Foreword
Foreword
Preface
Preface
Foreword
X. Active Participation in International Human Rights Activities
IX. Guarantee of Human Rights For the Disabled
VIII. Family Planning and Protection Of Human Rights
VII. Guarantee of the Rights of The Minority Nationality
VI. Citizens Enjoy Freedom Of Religious Belief
V. Guarantee of the Right to Work
IV. Guarantee of Human Rights In China's Judicial Work
III. Citizens Enjoy Economic, Cultural and Social Rights
II. The Chinese People Have Gained Extensive Political Rights
I. The Right to Subsistence--The Foremost Human Right The Chinese People Long Fight for
VIII. Employment, Resettlement, Education and Protection for Convicts Who Have Served Their Term and Been Released
VII. Carrying out the Punishment of Criminals
VI. Humane Handling of Prisoners in Accordance with the Law
V. Changing Criminals through Methods of Persuasion
IV. Legal, Moral, Cultural and Technical Education of Criminals
III. Reform of Criminals through Labour
II. Guaranteeing the Rights of Criminals
I. China's Basic Principles of Criminal Reform
Part Two XII. Special State Aid for Tibet's Development
Part Two XI. Protection of Living Environment
Part Two X. People's Health and Demographic Growth
Part Two IX. Development of Education and Culture
Part Two VIII. Freedom of Religious Belief
Part Two VII. Economic Development and Improvement of Living Standards
Part Two VI. The People Enjoy Political Rights
Part Two V. The People Gain Personal Freedom
Part Two IV. Feudal Serfdom in Old Tibet
Part One III. The Dalai Clique's Separatist Activities and the Central Government's Policy
Part One II. Origins of So-Called 'Tibetan Independence'
Part One I. Ownership of Tibet
V. Several Questions Involving Taiwan in International Relations
IV. Relations Across Taiwan Straits: Evolution and Stumbling Blocks
III. The Chinese Government's Basic Position Regarding Settlement of the Taiwan Question
II. Origin of the Taiwan Question
I. Taiwan -- An Inalienable Part of China
Chapter VIII Active Participation in International Women's Activities
Chapter VII Organizational Guarantees of the Rights and Interests of Chinese Women
Chapter VI Equal Status in Marriage and Family Life
Chapter V Full Advance in Society
Chapter IV Extensive Participation in Administration Of State and Social Affairs
Chapter III Equal Rights and Important Role In Economic Sphere
Chapter II Equal Legal Status
Chapter I Historic Liberation of Chinese Women
III. China Has a Complete Law Enforcement System for Intellectual Property Protection
II. China Has a High-Grade Legal System for Intellectual Property Protection
I. China's Basic Position Regarding the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights
VII. The Correct Choice for Human Rights Protection
VI. Optimization Through Reform and Development
V. Satisfying the Reproductive Health Needs of People of Child-bearing Age
IV. Bringing the People to a Common Level of Understanding
III. Combination of State Guidance with Voluntary Participation by the Masses
II. A Social Undertaking That Benefits the People
I. A Strategic Policy That Suits National Conditions
X. Working Hard to Promote the Healthy Development of International Huma Rights Activities
IX. Developing the Study of Human Rights and Popularizing the Knowledge of Human Rights
VIII. Guarantee of the Rights and Interests of the Disabled
VII. Guarantee of Rights and Interests of Ethnic Minorities
VI. Protecting the Legitimate Rights and Interests of Women and Children
V. The Right of Citizens to Education
IV. The Right to Work of Citizens and the Rights and Interests of Worker.
III. Judicial Work in Safeguarding Human Rights
I. People's Right to Existence and Development
V. China's Welfare Homes for Children
IV. Protection of Disabled Children
III. Education for Children
II. Children's Health and Care
I. Guarantee of Children's Rights and Interests
VII. Taking Vigorous Action to Promote International Cooperation in Environmental Protection
VI. Environmental Science and Technology, and Environmental Publicity and Education
V. Protection of the Ecological Environment and Biodiversity
IV. Territorial Control and Rural Environmental Protection
III. The Prevention and Control of Industrial Pollution and the Comprehensive Improvement of the Urban Environment
II. Improving the Legal and Administrative Systems Step by Step
I. The Choice of Implementing a Sustainable Development Strategy
VII. Deepening Structural Reform and Creating a Favorable Policy Environment for Grain Production and Circulation
VI. Comprehensively Developing, Utilizing and Protecting Land Resources for the Sustainable Development of Agriculture
V. Developing Agriculture by Relying on Science, Technology and Education and Changing the Grain Increase Method
IV. Striving to Improve Production Conditions to Increase the Comprehensive Grain Production Ability
III. China Can Basically Achieve Self-Sufficiency in Grain Through Self-Reliance
II. Prospects for China's Consumption Demand for Grain
I. New China Has Solved the Problem of Feeding Its People
The Grain Issue in China
VII. Guarantee of the Rights of Ethnic Minorities
VI. Legitimate Rights and Interests of Women and Children
V. Citizens' Rights to Receive Education
IV. Protection of Workers' Rights
II. Citizens' Democratic Rights
V. Protection of the Right to Freedom of Religious Belief for Ethnic Minorities
IV. Support for Independence and Initiative in Management of Religious Affairs
III. Judicial and Administrative Guarantees and Supervision of the Freedom of Religious Belief
II. Legal Protection of the Freedom of Religious Belief
I. The Present Conditions of Religion in China
Concluding Remarks
IV. The Right to Freedom of Religious Belief
III. The People Enjoy the Rights to Education,Culture and Health Protection
II. Economic Development and the People's Rights to Existence and Development
I. Ethnic Regional Autonomy System and the People's Political Rights
VII. Foreign Exchange and Co - operation in the Field of Human Rights
VI. Protection of the Rights of Ethnic Groups
V. Legitimate Rights and Interests of Women and Children
IV. Citizens' Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
II. Guarantee of Citizens' Political Rights
I.People's Rights to Subsistence and development
Notes:
V. Preservation and Development of the Cultures of Ethnic Minorities
IV. Promoting the Common Development of All Ethnic Groups
III. Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities
II. Adherence to Equality and Unity Among Ethnic Groups
I. A United Multi-Ethnic Country
VI. The Cross-Century Development Prospects for Human Rights in China
IV. Protection of the Rights of Women and Children
III. Civil Rights and Political Rights of Citizens Effectively Safeguarded
II. Great Improvement in the Rights to Subsistence and Development, and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
I. A Historic Turning Point in the Progress of Human Rights in China
VII. The News and Publishing, Broadcasting, Film and Television Industries Are Developing Rapidly
VI. Popular Education Makes a Historic Leap
V. Tibetan Studies Are Flourishing, and Tibetan Medicine and Pharmacology Have Taken On a New Lease of Life
IV. Culture and Art Are Being Inherited and Developed in an All-Round Way
III.Folk Customs and Freedom of Religious Belief Are Respected and Protected
II.Cultural Relics and Ancient Books and Records Are Well Preserved and Utilized
I.The Spoken and Written Tibetan Language Is Widely Studied and Used, and Being Developed
Note
VII. Developing International Cooperation in Drug Control
VI. Raising the Consciousness of the Entire People Against Drugs
V. Treatment and Rehabilitation
IV. Exercising Strict Control over the Precursor Chemicals
III. Cracking Down on Drug-related Crimes
II. Constantly Strengthening Drug Control Legislation
I.Sticking to the Position of Strict Drug Control
IV. Guarantee Measures
III. Plan of Action
II. Targets and Principles
I Current Situation and Prospect
VII. Actively Carrying Out International Exchanges and Cooperation in the Realm of Human Rights
V. Protection of Women and Children's Rights
IV. The Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of Citizens
II. The Guarantee of Citizens' Political Rights
I. The Improvement of the People's Rights to Subsistence and Development
V.The Aid-the-Rural-Poor Program in the Early Period of the 21st Century
IV.The Aid-the-Poor Program for the Special Groups Among the Impoverished
III.Major Contents and Channels of the Aid-the-Poor Program
II.Policy Guarantee for the Aid-the-Poor Program
I.The Course and Achievements of the Aid-the-Poor Program
III. The Historical Inevitability of Tibet's Modernization
II. Tibet's Modernization Achievements
I. The Rapid Social Development in Tibet
IV. Development in the Early Period of the 21st Century
III. The Establishment of a Social Security System
II. Formation of New Labor Relations
I.Overall Stability in Employment Situation
V. The Strategic Choice for Sustainable Development
IV. Building an Ecology-Friendly Railway Line -- the Qinghai-Tibet Railway
III. Ecological Improvement and Environmental Protection amid Economic Development
II. Ecological Improvement and Biodiversity Protection
I. Progress of the Ecological Improvement and Environmental Protection Work in Tibet
III. Human Rights in Name, Hegemonism In Reality
II. Confusing Right and Wrong and Calling Protection An "Abuse" of Human Rights
I. Distorting Facts to Deceive the World Public Opinion
VI. Improving the Management of Mineral Resources
V. Achieving the Coordinated Development of Mineral Resources Exploitation and Environmental Protection
IV. Widening the Opening of, and Cooperation in, Mineral Resources Exploration and Exploitation
III. Increasing the Domestic Capability of Mineral Resources Supply
II. Targets and Principles for Mineral Resources Protection and Rational Utilization
I. The Present Situation of Mineral Resources and Exploration and Exploitation of the Resources
VIII. International Exchanges and Cooperation in Human Rights
VII. The Rights and Interests of the Disabled
VI. Equal Rights and Special Protection for Ethnic Minorities
V. The Rights and Interests of Women and Children
III.Judicial Guarantee for Human Rights
I. The People's Rights to Subsistence and Development
VI. Employment Prospects for the Early Part of the 21st Century
V. Employment of Women, Youth and Disabled People
IV. Employment of Rural Workforce
III. Improving the Quality of the Workforce
II. Proactive Employment Policy
I. Basic Employment Situation
V. Regional Ethnic Autonomy Is the Fundamental Guarantee for Tibetan People As Masters of Their Own Affairs
IV. The Tibetan People Have the Freedom to Inherit and Develop Their Traditional Culture and to Practice Their Religious Belief
III. The Tibetan People Have Full Decision-making Power in Economic and Social Development
II. The Tibetan People Enjoy Full Political Right of Autonomy
I. The Establishment and Development of Regional Ethnic Autonomy in Tibet
X. Social Security in Rural Areas
IX. Housing Security
VIII. Social Relief
VII. Special Care and Placement
VI. Social Welfare
V. Maternity Insurance
IV. Insurance for Work-related Injuries
III. Medical Insurance
II. Unemployment Insurance
I. Old-age Insurance
X. Arms Control, Disarmament and Non- Proliferation
IX. International Security Cooperation
VIII.The Armed Forces and the People
VII. Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense
VI. National Defense Mobilization and Reserve Force Building
V. The Military Service System
IV. Defense Expenditure and Defense Assets
III. Revolution in Military Affairs with Chinese Characteristics
II. National Defense Policy
I. The Security Situation
V. Historical Development of Various Undertakings in Ethnic Autonomous Areas
IV. The Central Government's Support and Assistance for Ethnic Autonomous Areas
III. The Right of Self-Government of Ethnic Autonomous Areas
II. The Political Status of Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities and the Establishment of Ethnic Autonomous Areas
I. A Unified Multi-Ethnic State, and Regional Autonomy for Ethnic Minorities
VII. International Exchanges and Cooperation in the Field of Human Rights
VI. The Rights and Interests of the Disabled
V. Equal Rights and Special Protection for Ethnic Minorities
IV. Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
III. Judicial Guarantee for Human Rights
II. Civil and Political Rights
I. People's Rights to Subsistence and Development
IX. Judicial Protection of Intellectual Property Rights
VIII. Public Security Organs Act on Criminal Infringement on Intellectual Property Rights
VII. Customs Protection of Intellectual Property Rights
VI. Protection of New Varieties of Agricultural and Forestry Plants
V. Intellectual Property Rights Protection for Audio and Video Products
IV. Copyright Protection
III. Trademark Protection
II. Patent Protection
I. Basic Situation of the Protection of Intellectual Property Rights
IX. Legal Guarantees of Women's Rights and Interests
VIII. Women and the Environment
VII. Women, Marriage and the Family
VI. Women and Health
V. Women and Education
IV. Women's Participation in Decision Making and Management
III. Women and Poverty Elimination
II. Women and the Economy
I. State Mechanism to Promote Gender Equality and Development of Women
Annex III: Agreements on Disarmament and Confidence-Building Measures Between China and Relevant Countries
Annex II: Laws and Regulations of China on Non-Proliferation Export Control
Annex I: List of Arms Control, Disarmament and Non-Proliferation Treaties That China Has Joined
VI. Tightening Non-Proliferation Export Control
V. Actively Participating in International Non-Proliferation Efforts
IV. Committed to National and Regional Disarmament
III. Participating in and Promoting International Arms Control and Disarmament Process
II. China's Basic Policy and Position
I. International Security and Arms Control Situation
X. Judicial Democracy
IX. Government Democracy
VIII. The Democratic Rule by the Communist Party of China
VII. Respecting and Safeguarding Human Rights
VI. Grassroots Democracy in Urban and Rural Areas
V. The System of Ethnic Regional Autonomy
IV. The System of Multi-Party Cooperation and Political Consultation Under the Leadership of the CPC
III. The People's Congress System
II. The CPC Led the People to Become Masters of the State
I. A Choice Suited to China's Conditions
V. Building a Harmonious World of Sustained Peace and Common Prosperity
IV. Seeking Mutual Benefit and Common Development with Other Countries
III. Developing by Relying on Its Own Strength, Reform and Innovation
II. Promoting World Peace and Development with China's Own Growth
I. Peaceful Development Is the Inevitable Way for China's Modernization
X. International Cooperation in Environmental Protection
IX. Environmental Science and Technology, Industry and Public Participation
VIII. Environmental Impact Assessment
VII. Economic Policy and Investment Concerning the Environment
VI. Ecological Protection and Construction
V. Protection of the Rural Environment
IV. Protection of the Urban Environment
III. Pollution Control in Key Regions
II. Prevention and Control of Industrial Pollution
I. Environmental Protection Legislation and System
VII. Safeguarding Elderly People's Legitimate Rights and Interests
VI. Participation in Social Development
V. Cultural Education for the Aged
IV. Social Services for an Ageing Society
III. Health and Medical Care for the Aged
II. Old-age Security System
I. State Mechanism of Undertakings for the Aged
Foreword
X. State Support for the Development of Xinjiang
IX. Establishment, Development and Role of the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps
VIII. Upholding Equality and Unity Among Ethnic Groups, and Freedom of Religious Belief
VII. The People's Living Standard and Quality of Life Have Been Enhanced
VI. Progress in Education, Science and Technology, Culture and Health Work
V. The Economic Development of Xinjiang After the Founding of New China
IV. Origin of the "East Turkistan" Issue
III. The Administration of Xinjiang by the Successive Central Governments
II. Diverse Religions Coexist and Spread in Xinjiang
I. Xinjiang Has Been a Multi-ethnic Region Since Ancient Times
Conclusion
V. International Exchanges and Cooperation Regarding Food Safety
IV. Law Regime and Technological Guarantee System for Food Safety
III. Supervision of Imported and Exported Food
II. Food Safety Regulatory System and Work
I. Food Production and Food Quality
Preface

China A-Z HOME

IV. Legal, Moral, Cultural and Technical Education of Criminals

Chinese law stipulates that the reform of criminals through labour should be combined with legal, moral, cultural, and technical education. Since most criminals are young, without much education and legally ignorant, an important part of the work of reform-through-labour is helping the prisoners become better educated and acquire more legal, moral and cultural awareness and working skills. To meet these objectives Chinese reform-through-labour institutions now run special schools, creating a criminal reform system with Chinese characteristics.

Since 1981 the Chinese Government has included education of criminals in its national educational programme. Where conditions permit, prisons and reform-through-labour institutions are required to set up special educational institutions to form a complete educational system for formal and institutionalized legal, moral, cultural, and technical education of prisoners. By the end of 1991, 72.82% of all prisons and reform-through-labour institutions had established such special schools.

The legal and moral education of criminals in reform- through-labour institutions emphasizes the need to plead guilty, abide by the law, improve moral values and better one's outlook on life. The purpose is to help criminals know, abide by, and accept the law and to improve their moral standards.

Legal education for prisoners mainly consists of studying the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, Criminal Law, Law of Criminal Procedure, General Provisions of the Civil Law, and "Code of Civil Law Procedures", etc. This enables them to learn the basic rights and obligations of a citizen, the legal consequences for committing a crime and the basic contents of the criminal law, the criminal justice system and the basic civil laws relating to marriage, family, rights of persons and property rights. On this basis, they should be able to draw a clear distinction between legal and illegal actions or criminal and non-criminal acts and become fully aware of the danger and legal consequences of criminal actions, so that they may admit their guilt, obey the laws and voluntarily accept reform.

Education in morality and outlook on life focuses on issues which are closely related to a prisoner's immediate interests, such as his or her ideals, happiness, conscience, pleasure or sadness, honour or humiliation, future, marriage, family, etc., making them understand proper social morality and sense of value so that a prisoner can clearly distinguish honour from humiliation, civilized from uncivilized behaviour, noble from base actions, and beauty from ugliness. At the same time, individual and specific education is provided to suit individual cases and coordinate with the lessons learned from their criminal activities. This has proven effective in reforming the minds of criminals.

According to statistics, 98.92% of all prisoners in China took part in legal and moral education in 1991. One prisoner in Guizhou named Mei, who took the legal and moral education seriously, overcame his bad habits during imprisonment. Since completing his sentence he has been well-behaved and law-abiding. He has prospered through his hard work and won the trust of the masses who elected him as the head of a model village, deputy to the township people's congress and member of the county committee of the political consultative conference.

Elimination of illiteracy and attainment of universal junior secondary education are the main objectives of cultural education in prisons, but criminals with a higher educational level are encouraged to attend correspondence colleges, part-time colleges or TV colleges offered by society.

Chinese reform-through-labour institutions regularly test the educational level of prisoners and prison students are divided into different grades and classes similar to the teaching programme in schools in society at large. Prisoners whose educational level is below the junior secondary school level are generally required to attend classes.

The overall director of a prison or reform-through-labour institution also serves as the principal of the institution's special school. The school also has a dean and teachers' office plus a teaching programme and curriculum prepared each school term and year. Prisoners study about two hours a day or 12 hours a week. Teaching staff are especially selected for the school and some are chosen from among prisoners with a higher educational level. Prisoners who have attended classes and passed the tests given by the local educational department will be given educational certificates equivalent to those issued by educational institutions in the society at large.

According to statistics, at the end of 1991, there were over 12,000 classes of various kinds being offered at China's prisons and reform-through-labour institutions. Over 518,000 prisoners attended the classes and the 92.35% of those eligible to attend were admitted. There were 5,300 prisoners studying through classes offered in publications, correspondence colleges, part-time colleges, and TV colleges and 4,000 who took higher education examinations for self-study students. Over the last six years, prisoners have been awarded a total of 902,000 certificates or diplomas of various kinds. A three-year regular educational programme which has been instituted for prisoners in the Third Prison of Shandong Province has brought the illiteracy rate there down from 17.6% to 1.3%. In addition, the number of prisoners with less than a primary school education has dropped from 65% to 5.3% and the number of those who have a junior secondary education or above has increased substantially. Revidivism has dropped to 1.9%. There was once a youth from the city of Shenyang who was sentenced to reform-through-labour because of his involvement in a gang theft. While serving his sentence, he conscientiously accepted reform and actively participated in the classes organized by the reform-through-labour institution. After he was released from prison he passed his college entrance examination and later was even admitted as a postgraduate at Harbin Industrial University, where he obtained an MA degree.

Vocational education is a major part of the education programme for criminals in China. According to statistics, over 561,000 criminals took part in training courses for various skills in 1991, representing 83.18% of the total number of prisoners who were eligible. A total of 546,000 certificates for various levels of technical proficiency were issued to prisoners by the labour departments in society as a result of testing.

To augment vocational training for prisoners, prisons and reform-through-labour institutions feature vocational teaching and research facilities, classrooms, laboratories and experimental plots set up by agricultural work units. Vocational teaching materials and various forms of reference material are provided free for the prisoners. Teachers are generally selected from among engineers, technicians and agricultural experts within the reform-through-labour institutions supplemented by technicians and teachers from schools or other institutions in society. Taking into account the social needs of prisoners who have been released plus the fact that they go in different directions, short, practical and immediately useful programmes are the main focus of vocational and technical training. Through courses which teach subjects such as home appliance repair, tailoring and sewing, cooking, hair-dressing, home poultry raising, carpentry, bricklaying, electricity and agricultural implement repair, prisoners acquire one or more skills during their imprisonment, in preparation for finding employment after their release. A study of 720 former prisoners with technical skills conducted by a reform-through-labour institution in Jinan, Shandong Province revealed that 96% found employment soon after returning to society. Some returned to their original work units and some were employed as key technical personnel inordinary enterprises. Still others set up household businesses, construction operations or other service industries, becoming individual business operators who behave themselves and abide by the law. A reform-through-labour institution in Lingyuan, Liaoning Province made a study 124 former inmates who had acquired technical proficiency certificates in prison. All of them had jobs and none had committed new crimes.

The systematic legal, moral, cultural and technical education of criminals is intended to make prisons and reform- through-labour institutions like special schools for educating and reforming criminals. This represents an important improvement in reform-through-labour work in the country as well as a development in the construction of a socialist legal system in China. Experience has shown that it is an effective way to improve our work in reforming criminals and promotes a good social order. This policy has generated a systematic legal system with Chinese characteristics.